French Colonialism in Djibouti: Division, Deception & Domination
Background
In the following paragraphs, I will examine how the French systematically sowed the “Somali-Afar divide” by favouring factions of populations. This division would set the foundation for the civil war of the late 1980s & early 1990s and this division is still echoed today in the Djiboutian society and political arena.
Consolidating Their New Colony
At the turn of the 20th century, the French continued to sign treaties with the Afars and Somalis subjecting the indigenous peoples to French colonial rule. Their presence and influence grew exponentially as they solidified their stronghold in the region by building the Franco-Ethiopian Railway in 1901 which ran from the Djiboutian port directly to the capital of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, exponentially increasing trade in the region.
First locomotive to operate the line Franco-Ethiopian Railway, 1899
Due to the low fertility of the soil in the territory and small population, traditional violent colonial methods of forced labour and land-seizing from the indigenous population were not employed. The French authorities sought to systematically divide the natives among their ethnic lines to facilitate their domination.
A newly formed colonial identity was imposed on the people of the region as they were now part of the “Somali French Coast”. The French also continued to broker deals with neighbouring Afar sultans through to the end of the 1800s and by the early 1900s the borders of modern-day Djibouti were finalised.
Fast Forward to the Post-WW2 Era
The Cold war between the proponents of capitalism (Western Europe & North America) & communism (USSR) indirectly led to tensions in the Horn of Africa. The USSR gained influence in Somalia where they pushed for the unification of the Somali people in the Horn of Africa, under an ethno-state. This raised alarm bells for the French who subsequently held a referendum in Djibouti in 1958 to gauge the public if they would prefer to join Somalia under a unified Somali state or remain under French rule. The ethnically heterogeneous makeup of the French colony caused disagreement between the Afars & the Somalis. The Afars overwhelmingly voted to remain under French rule whereas the Somalis of the French colony voted to join a unified Somali state.
The outcome of this referendum was that the territory remains under French rule.
The Ethnic Divide
However, the integrity of the referendum was put into question as the French were accused of voter fraud and mass deportations of ethnic Somalis out of the territory to British Somaliland during the period leading up to the election. This significantly reduced the number of ethnic Somalis who were eligible to vote in the referendum. The French justified such deportations as Somalis being spies, influenced by the Soviets, wanting to thwart the referendum and skew the outcome. Another way the French justified deportation was through arbitrarily voiding the identity cards of some Somalis. Therefore, without a valid ID card, the individual was unable to participate in the referendum and subsequently kicked out the territory.
Tensions rose once again when a second referendum was held in 1967, where the same tactics were employed to repress the Somali vote. This time, however, saw an outbreak of riots and and increase in military presence, with even President Charles de Gaulle having to carry out a “Tour D’Afrique” to signal to his colonial peers that everything was under control and to symbolise to their dominance and stronghold in the territory.
The reason the French held these referendums was to allow themselves to justify the continuation of their colonial activities in the territory.
Charles de Gaulle meeting with WW2 veterans in Djibouti.
Ethnic division was becoming increasingly apparent, as two historically and culturally different groups were now trapped into one bordered territory. In the meantime, hostility against the Afars from the Somalis was brewing under the surface, because of the favouritism the French showed towards them.
This division is accentuated and institutionalised when the Somali French Coast is renamed to "The French Territory of the Afars and the Issas". This renaming sought to change the perception of the proportions of Somalis to Afars in the territory. It gave the impression that the Afar population was more than it actually was and the changing of “Somalis” to “Issas” aimed to minimise and replace the Somali identity and substitute it with the name of the Somali tribe that inhabited the southeast of the coast.
Next time…
As independence movements around the world accelerate and the maintenance of colonies becomes less and less viable due to the aftermath of WW2, the French aim to coordinate decolonisation and make the territory an independent entity. In our next series, we will critically examine the process of decolonisation in the territory in terms of internal and external influence, and the establishment of new post-colonial institutions.